Penulis: Dr. Willybrodus a.k.a. William Chang
Publikasi: Jurnal Ledalero, Vol. 10, No. 2, Desember 2011 ), Jurnal Ilmiah Nasional Terakreditasi (Dikti No. 66b/DIKTI/KEP/2011), ISSN 1412-5420
Introduction
One of the most important themes in Confucius’ moral
philosophy is Jen.[1] Why?
First, in his research, Professor Wing-tsit Chan has pointed out that in the
Analects[2],
58 out of 449 chapters are devoted to the discussion of Jen, and the word
appears 105 times.[3]
Second, Jen in Confucius’ Analects consists of various rich ethical meanings
which are regarded as the highest attainment of moral cultivation.[4]
Third, to understand it we need
wisdom and knowledge alone does not suffice, because Jen touches every human
being’s existence and Jen is that which characterizes man.[5]
Up to now there have been many different interpretations of Confucius’ concept
of Jen.[6]
Chinese thinkers themselves, according to Leo Sherly-Price, have difficulty in
plumbing the depth of meaning in this concept, and in adequately rendering into
words its many subtle and manifold implications.[7]
And, among the sinologists, there are debates on the etymology of Jen itself.[8]
Moreover, Msgr. Stanislaus Lokuang, states that actually there is no European
word which can express exactly and exhaustively the content of Jen. That is why
the translators have tried to translate it according to the contextual sense.[9]
Considering the importance and richness of Confucius’ key-thought, which causes
the different interpretations, I intend to research the real meaning of Jen in
Confucius’ Analects, to see whether it has the equivalent meaning as Jesus’
teaching on love according to John’s Gospel. The main question that I am going
to answer in this analysis is: “what are the interpretations of Confucian Jen?”
1.
Etymological interpretation of Confucian
Jen
The written form of Jen is composed of two different
words, i.e., man on the left with two horizontal lines on the right.[10]
Several Confucian experts have tried to understand this word literally and they
look for Confucius’ meaning.
Jen as moral perfection
In his research and hypothesis, Stanislao
Lokuang says that the literal meaning of Jen may be twofold: either the love
which joins two human beings together or the humanity which teaches how human
beings must behave towards others. But he also adds another meaning, that is,
the moral perfection which makes a human being become really worthy of his
name.[11]
Lokuang
underlines that Confucius has used Jen in these three meanings, but overall, he
stresses the third meaning: the moral perfection, because it is with Jen that
Confucius framed his moral system in a central chapter.[12]
Jen as human relationships
Etymologically, according to Huston Smith,
a professor of St. Louis,
Jen indicates the ideal of relationship between human beings, which is based on
their hearts. Here he does not define Jen as the interrelationship between two
persons only.[13]
Julia Ching, an internationally known
scholar of religion and author of the award-winning Confucianism and
Christianity, does not give any etymological formulation of Jen. However, she
underlines that in etymology as well as in interpretation, Jen is always
concerned with human relationships.[14]
Another interpretation of Jen comes from To
Thi Anh. She interprets that Jen etymologically means the interrelationship
between human beings which is based on the same humanity. It is the true
humanity, the good will, the interrelationship between human beings. What this
word expresses is humanity in its fulfillment and majesty.[15]
These interpretations have the same stress
as Ernst Schwarz’s comment about Confucian Jen.
2.
The contextual interpretation of Confucius’
Jen
Jen is “goodness” or “benevolence”?
In his comment on the evolution of Jen, Lin Yue-sheng
of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, suspects that the formal sense of Jen
did not change until Confucius made Jen the central concern of his moral
discourse, but that the substantive sense of the word gradually widened to
include moral connotations in the course of approximately 200 years from the
time of the “Shu-yu-tien” to the time immediately before Confucius.[16]
The above opinion is much the same as Arthur Waley’s.
He says that Confucius’ use of the term, a use particular to this book, stands
in close relationship to the primitive meaning. In an extremely wide and
general sense, Jen in the Analects means “good”. In its meaning (6:28)[17]
lie unselfishness and an ability to measure other people’s feelings by one’s
own. However, it cannot be said that Jen in the Analects simply means “good” in
a general sense”.[18]
Waley states that “good” is the only possible
translation of the term Jen as it occurs in the Analects. No other word is sufficiently
general to cover the whole range of its meaning; indeed terms such as “humane”,
“altruistic”, “benevolent” are in almost every instance inappropriate, often
ludicrously so. To distinguish it from another word, “shan”, Waley translates
Jen by good with a capital (Good) and shan with a small letter (good).[19]
Sung-Hae Kim, a professor in the Department of
Religious Studies at Sogang
University in
Seoul-Korea, has another opinion. Among the different translations (true
virtue, goodness, humanity or benevolence), she chooses “benevolence”, for it
can denote both an inward quality of man and outward good to others, which is
essential to the concept of Jen. Implicitly, in “benevolence”, we can also find
the Good or goodness.[20]
The interpretation of Jen cannot be separated at all
from its historical background in earlier Chinese philosophy, because Confucius
himself kept the cultural continuity in his moral teachings (cf. 7:11)[21]
and the meaning of Confucian Jen itself evolved. However, this key-word at
least, consists of goodness and benevolence.
Jen is inclusive
It must be noted that Jen in Confucius’
Analects is not only a continuation of the traditional concept of Jen, because
its meaning continued to broaden. Confucius himself broadened the meaning of Jen
to “general virtue”.[22]
It denotes an inclusive moral virtue as well as the highest moral attainment
that a man can achieve in life by human effort.[23]
What are the all-inclusive moral virtues?
According to Confucius, they are filial piety (17:21), wisdom (5:18), propriety
(12:1)[24],
courage (14:5), and loyalty (5:18; 18:1). Confucius’ idea of the inclusiveness
of Jen, according to Lin Yue-sheng, is explained more clearly in the Analects
4:2[25];
4:3[26]
and 4:4.[27]
If Jen includes all-inclusive moral
virtues, this means that it precludes all evil (4:4). Timothy Lin identified
the man of Jen with the sage or the superior man (chuen-tzu), for he possesses
all moral virtues; he “never abandons Jen even for the lapse of a single meal.
In moments of haste, he acts according to it. In times of difficulty or
confusion, he acts according to it” (4:5).
Confucius’ concept of Jen entails a notion
of the uninterrupted dynamic of moral life. Jen can be cultivated and developed
from the natural resources of man’s nature. If a man desires Jen, he can
cultivate and develop it at every moment of his life. However, this developing
Jen has not reached the highest level of moral excellence, because moral
excellence is developed rather than generically changed from the distinctive
nature of man; every stage of moral cultivation and development can be
conceived as a stage of potential moral excellence; hence statement that “as
soon as we want Jen, we find that it is at our side.”[28]
In his research on Confucius’ teaching of the
inclusiveness of Jen, Stanislao Lokuang departs from the Analects 12:1, 2, 3
and 13:19. In the answers to his disciples (Yen Hui, Tschou Kong, Sse Ma-niu,
Fan-tsche), Confucius always gave a new explanation of the same word (Jen).
This indicates that Jen is inclusive of all virtues. Jen in Confucius’ mind
represents all the virtues and builds up the point of departure and arrival at
the sanctity. Lokuang’s understanding of the inclusiveness of Jen also
influenced his conception of Jen as moral perfection.[29]
Jen as the universal virtue[30]
The word “universal” here does not derive
from Confucius himself.[31]
The universal virtue makes the Confucian man[32]
fully and perfectly human, that which embraces all other virtues.[33]
What is the meaning of Jen as the universal
virtue? First, Jen is universal in the sense that it is applicable to all men.[34]
According to Julia Ching, Jen, which also has been translated as charity, is a
universal virtue which embraces and animates all other virtues. Confucius’
teaching has transformed Jen into a universal virtue that which can be
practiced by all.[35]
Second, Jen is at the very root of man’s goodness and all his other virtues are
but expressions and aspects of it. Jen will express itself through the human
medium in loyalty to man’s true and highest nature, and in unselfish
faithfulness to “whatsoever is true and lovely.”[36]
The
universality of Jen can be seen in Confucius’ answer when somebody asked him
about Jen. He always gave a somewhat different answer. To the disciple Fan
Chih, he says it means to “love men” (12:21). To Yen Hui, he speaks of Jen in
terms of subduing oneself and returning to propriety (12:1).[37]
So, Jen is the universal virtue in the sense that it
is also love, which can be applied to all men and it is the basis for all
goodness.
Is Jen love?
The main question that we will answer here
is: “Can Confucius’ Jen in the Analects be identified with love?”
Several Confucian translators and writers
nowadays claim that Jen in the Analects means charity or carità.[38]
The main reason which cause them
to translate Jen as love or charity, is the Analects 12:22: “It is to love
men.”[39]
According to the great Confucian thinker, Mencius (321-289?), Jen here means
affection and love. The man of Jen love all and everyone (7A:46). He also
states that such a man “extends his love from those he love to those he does
not love” (7B:1).[40]
For Timothy Lin, Jen also means “to love men”. More explicitly, one should love
all extensively and be intimate with all men of Jen” (1:4).
In addition, the Analects 15:23 (“Never do
to others what you would not like them to do to you”) and the Analects 12:2
(“Do not do to others what you would not like yourself.”) will be a strong
argument for understanding Jen as love. Why? From these three quotations (12:2;
12:12 and 15:23) we know that what Confucius meant by Jen is the love of
others.[41]
Moreover, some Confucian interpreters, such as Julia Ching and Leo Suryadinata,
say that Analects 15:23 is “the negative Golden Rule.”[42]
What kind of love Confucius mean here? Timothy Lin
states that Jen here is a love with distinction. Confucius maintained that one
must have intimate rather than ordinary love for the men of Jen; one must “repay
hatred with uprightness and repay virtue with virtue” (14:36).[43] Sometimes the Confucian interpretation of
Jen is called “a graded love”.[44]
It
must be noted, according to Luigi Magnani, the Confucian love of others is not
the virtue that requires to sacrifice ourselves for others, but is instead a
form of egoism. This means that this love must be realized towards friends,
relatives and the others who have done good things for us. We can be
indifferent towards others and if they do “minus malum”, we can respond to them
with justice (14:36). Magnani underlines that the Confucian love has no other
motives, except personal interest and utility; these are necessary in order
that good relationships with others can be kept in our life (1:1; 15:19).[45]
Our
question now is: “How is Jen realized?”
2.4.1. Jen and the relationship between
young and old
In
speaking about the realization of JEN as love, Confucius reminds his disciples
that veneration has an important place (5:25).[46]
There are two reasons why Confucius himself was aware of this importance, First, he understood that the veneration of the old by the young is
also a task of Heaven. Second, it is
very realistic that human being s can develop their personal character, when
they are still young (cf. 17:26).[47]
Lokuang comments that the old, who have fallen into
misery because of the lack of their children’s help need veneration, which
naturally includes compassion. That is why the society and each member of a
large family should think of the old people, who are in misery. The attention
and respect in a family is also a sign of love. Respect is a means which
deadens the young.[48]
On
the other hand, the young should be respected as well (9:22). This attention
should be accompanied by admiration and understanding[49]
(cf. 1:2).
But
this does not mean that we put young people in condition of slavery condition.
Why? This is because in the Confucian tradition there is a type of friendship
which links the young and the old with affectionate fraternity.
2.4.2. Jen and friendship[50]
Faithfulness in a friendship is a distinguishing fact
of Tseng-tze, because he considered friendship as a serious and sacred thing.
This is not only to satisfy the sentimental needs, but also to reach a moral
and spiritual finality, although he also found difficulties in gaining
perfection.[51]
However, in friendship there should be an immutable
faithfulness. Social and financial condition must not change the affection of
the friendship. A poor man who becomes rich and famous, who forgets his friends
in poverty, is not a worthy friend. The principal obligation here is reciprocal
attention in a difficult situation. Without this faithfulness in friendship,
there is no real friendship (16:4).[52]
2.5.
Jen and Li[53]
The relation between Jen and Li cannot be
denied. “If a man is not Jen, what has he to do with Li? If he is not Jen, what
has he to do with music?” (3:3). What does it mean? In this teaching, Confucius
underlines that rites and ritual music are not the external, formal or as
Schwarz observes, “seelenlose Handlungen”, but also an expression of ethical
and internalized value.
Jen
can be seen also in the practice of Li.[54]
Here Confucius emphasized the importance
of sincerity or the internal motivation of man’s actions. One’s actions must be
in accord with one’s motivation.[55]
Confucius himself said that somebody who does not know Li cannot take his stand
(20:3). In the last chapter of the Analects, Confucius noted that Li has a
great influence in realization of ethical attitudes, which is also relate to sacred and social norms. Briefly,
the man of Jen could be recognized in his practice of Li.
The
interdependence between Jen and Li is very clear. Without Jen, both propriety
and music were regarded as empty (cf. 3:3 and 17:11).[56]
According to Sung Hae-Kim, Jen must always be structured and expressed by Li,
and herein lies the importance of cultural education and refinement. Besides,
there is a subtle balance between Jen as the highest completion of virtue and
Li as the highest expression of culture.[57]
Our question now is: “Why should Jen have relation
with Li?” Lin Yue-sheng argues that Jen cannot be developed by understanding
natural phenomena. Jen is a quality different from the intellect, but it is
also a protean quality of virtue. It can only be cultivated and developed in
inter-human relationships. That is why Li as the norm of social and ritual
conduct must be presupposed.[58]
The realization and development of Jen depends on Li
too. But this does not mean that Jen is the same as Li, although he who does
not learn Li cannot fulfill himself (cf. Analects 16:13). Why? This is because
Li is only a means which can bring human beings to Jen. Li can be changed and
reformed based on Jen. In his analysis, Lin Yue-sheng states that in the actual
working situation, the majority of the rules of Li must be suitable to the
cultivation of Jen.[59]
Jen and Li must be developed in five human relations,
which are called “wu lun” (five relationships of five humanities)[60]:
that is the relation between king and minister; father and son; elder brother
and younger brother; husband and wife, and among friends. A son has the duty to
respect his parents (“Hsiao” or “filial piety”) and he has a duty to foster
fraternity with his own brothers (“ti” or “fraternity”). These two principles
are based on Jen, and should be developed in a social relation.[61]
However,
the relation between Jen and Li cannot be separated, because Li is also a means
to realize Jen. Jen is like the soul and Li is like the body of the soul. From
some texts in Confucius’ Analects we can know the Jen in the Analects also
means love, which should be expressed in the relationship with others and with
Li, because Jen itself presupposes them.
2.6.
Jen
and “chuen-tzu”[62]
What is “chuen-tzu”? Literally “chuen-tzu”
means “ruler’s son”, that is a relative of a ruler, and therefore a member of
the nobility. In this sense it is contrasted with “hsiao jen”, “little man”,
plebeian.[63]
But, in the period of Confucius, the literal meaning of “chuen-tzu” changed,
because not all the ruler’s sons lived according to this name.[64]
What does Confucius mean by “chuen-tzu”? In
the Analects 4:11, he described “chuen-tzu” as a man who cherishes virtue and
respect the law. “Chuen-tzu” is identified as a person who reveres virtue in
Analects 14:5. How does a man revere virtue? One of his disciples asked this
very question in 12:10, and Confucius’ answer is very important for
understanding the relationship between the basic moral endowment and the other
virtues[65].
Like “chung” and “hsin”.[66]
Besides, “chuen-tzu” is free from worries and fears (12:4) and helps others to
realize what is good in them (12:16). It is a fact that “chuen-tzu” never
leaves the way of Jen. The way to establish Jen is described in the Analects
1:2b.[67]
From here we can know that what Confucius meant by “chuen-tzu” actually has a
very close relation with his teaching of Jen.
What are the basic characteristic of the
“chuen-tzu”? I.G. Wibowo has classified “chuen-tzu” into six characteristics,
which are based on the Analects of Confucius. First, “chuen-tzu” is a man who
does not easily change his mind, but he is a calm and patient person (cf. 13:27).
Second, “chuen-tzu”is peaceful, modest and humble. Here “chuen-tzu” always
gives respect to the others. Third, “chuen-tzu” has a harmonized character
within himself and in relation to others (3:7). Fourth, “chuen-tzu” is faithful
to the people, who give him confidence (8:6). Fifth, “chuen-tzu” has to be
aware of his short-comings, so that he can receive criticism from others (1:8)
and sixth, “chuen-tzu” is independent, because has the capability to do many
things (8:6).[68]
Briefly, “chuen-tzu” in the Analects is the
man who has harmonized virtue and culture, Jen and Li.[69]
“Chuen-tzu”, according to Antonio S. Cua, is a man in whom Jen and Li are
embodied in personal harmony.[70]
Conclusion
Jen is Jen. No one European word can
perfectly express the basic essence of Jen. Why? This is because Confucius
tried to transmit the traditional meaning of Jen as he received it from the
ancients (7:11), and on the other hand, he also broadened this traditional
meaning with a larger and deeper content.[71]
So, what is the basic essence of Jen in
Confucius’ Analects? Jen here is not only a universal virtue, but it is also an
inclusive virtue, which can lead human beings to moral perfection. The
realization of Jen, which based on love, is always in relation with others. However,
Jen in the Analects also means love of others, and stresses the human aspect.
Jen has two important elements, i.e., “chung” and “shu”, which play an
important role in keeping harmonious relation with others. The practice of Jen
is also based on Li. Jen and Li should be developed in “wu-lun” – the “five
relationships of five humanities”. And, a concrete embodiment of Jen can be
seen also in “chuen-tzu”.
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[1]Timothy Tian-Min Lin, “The Confucian
Concept of Jen and the Christian Concept of Love”, Ching Feng 15 (1972),
162.
[2]Arthur Waley, The Analects of Confucius
[Vintage Book] (New York: Random House, 1938), 21-26. Analects is translated
from the word “Lun Yue”, which means “Selected Sayings”. The contents of this
book itself make itself make it clear that the compilation took place long
after Confucius’ death. How far can we regard any of the sayings in the
Analects as actual words of Confucius? In searching for such authentic sayings,
we must use certain precautions. Obviously, we shall not find them in Book X,
which is simply a collection of traditional ritual maxims, nor in Book XX,
which is a collection of sentences from texts of the Su Ching type.
[4]Lin Yue-sehing, “The Evolution of the
Pre-Confucian meaning of jen and the Confucian Concept of Moral Autonomy.”, Monumenta
Serica 31 (1974-1975), 184.
[5]Chi Pe-Ssu, “Essential Points of Chinese
Culture”, Ching Feng 10 (Winter, 1967), 7.
[6]In this case I find that each writer has
his own stress in interpreting the Confucian concept of Jen, although what they
mean by their interpretations is Jen itself. Each has highlighted one particular aspect of
Jen. For example, since the time of James Legge, the word “benevolence” has
been commonly used, but this is obviously inadequate. Meanwhile, Fung Yu-lan
translates it as “human-heartedness”, which comes much nearer to the original
meaning (cf. Chi Pe-Ssu, Ibid.,)
[7]Leo Sherly-Price, Ibid., 130.
[8]Cf. James T. Bretzke, “The Tao (Moral
Vision) of the Confucian ‘Superior Person’: A
Contemporary Reflection on an Ethical of Virtue.” (Roma, University of
Gregoriana, 1992), 14.
[9]Stanislao Lokuang, La Sapienza dei Cinesi: Il
Confucianismo (Roma: Officium Libri Catholici, 1957), 92. Lokuang’s
opinion is true, in so far we see the different dictionaries’ translation of
this word (Jen). Today’s Confucian writers, such as Julia Ching and Leo
Suryadinata, try to translate Jen with love. Cf. Ernst Schwarz, Konfuzius:
Gespraeche des Meisters Kung (Lun Yue) (Muenchen: Deutscher Taschenbuch
Verlag GmBh & Co. KG., 1991), 174: “…Kein deutsches Wort kann die volle
–und oft auch variirende- Bedeutung des Schriftzeichnes “Ren” wiedergeben…”
[10]Lin Yu-tang, Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern
Usage (Tokyo-Japan: Kenkkyusha Printing Co., Ltd.: The Chinese
University of Hong Kong, 1972), 1251.
[11]If I compare Lokuang’s explanation with
Yue-Sheng’s analysis of the evolution of Jen, I think that Lokuang’s conclusion
of the meaning of the character Jen is not based on the evolution of Jen.
[12]Stanislao Lokuang, Op. cit., 93.
[13]Huston Smith, Agama-agama Manusia (The
Religions of Man) (Trans. Saafroedin Bahan) (Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia,
1991), 210.
[14]Cf. Julia Ching, Confucianism and Christianity: A
Comparative Study (Tokyo, New York and St.
Francisco: Kodansha International, 1977), 94: “… In its etymology as well as in
the interpretation given it by Confucius, Jen is always concerned with the
relationship between man and man. It is associated with both loyalty (chung) –
loyalty to one’s own heart and conscience – and reciprocity (shu) – respect of, and consideration for
others – Analects 4:15). Jen is also related to li (propriety, ritual). The
latter refers more to ritual and social behavior, the former, to the inner
orientation of the person…”
[15]To Thi Anh, Nilai Budaya Timur dan Barat:
Konflik atau Harmoni? (Eastern and Western Cultural Values
by John Yap Pareira) (Jakarta: PT Gramedia, 1985), 7.
[16]Lin Yue-sheng, Op. cit., 180-183: Lin
based his opinion on Book IV, Chapter 7 of the Analects, which consists of
different translations and interpretations. First, in his comparative
investigation
of Chu Hsi,
James Legge and Arthur Waley, he arrives at the conclusion that the
commentators and translators had to twist the plain language of the statement
in order to make their interpretation fit in with their notion of Jen as
“virtue” or “goodness”. Besides, he also states that there was an evolution of
the meaning of Jen by the times of Confucius. Second, we assume that the
substantive sense of Jen had not widened to include moral connotations by the
times of Confucius, we must assert that Confucius himself changed both the
formal sense of Jen from “manliness” or “manhood” to “goodness” and the substantive
of Jen from an amoral sense of the qualities of “ai” and “ching”. Such an
assertion is contrary to Confucius’ profound concern for cultural continuity.
Third, we assume that the substantive sense of Jen (7:19) had gradually widened
to include moral connotations by the time of Confucius carried on this
tradition of pondering moral qualities in the search for man’s identity that he
engaged himself in an intensive discussion of the substantive meaning of Jen
and in so doing subtly transformed the formal meaning of Jen from “manliness”
or “manhood” to “goodness”, we take recognizance of Confucius’ genius in
innovating change within tradition, which is a characteristic mark of his
thought.
[17]The Analects 6:28 should be interpreted in
relation to Analects 17:6; 1:2 and 4:1, which also speak of Jen. Confucius’
sayings of Jen here stress “humanity” and “goodness”.
[18]Cf. Sung-Hae Kim, The Righteous and the Sage: A Comparative Study on the
Ideal Images of Man in Biblical Israel
and Classical China
(Seoul: Sogang University Press, 1985), 40-41. Confucius always used the tern “shan” (good) in
combination with the others, such as “shan jen”. He used it to indicate the
sage (7:26), the contrast with the bad (7:22; 18:24; 17:6; 20:1). Sung-Hae Kim
says that the term “shan” is more frequently used in a descriptive way and does
not develop into a clear human image in the Analects. But, according to
Schwarz’ interpretation of “shan”, Confucius also used it to indicate
“fairness” attitude in relationship with animals (See Ernst Schwarz, Op.
cit., 206).
[19]Arthur Waley, Op. cit., 27-29.
[20]Sung-Hae Kim, Op. cit., 37. Cf. Soejono
Soemargono, Sejarah Ringkas Filsafat Cina (Sejak Confucius sampai Han Fei Tzu)
[Trans. from Fung Yu Lan, The Short History of Chinese Philosophy
(From Confucius to Han Fei Tzu)] (Yogyakarta: Liberty, 1990), 54. Here
Fung Yu Lan says that Confucius also used Jen to indicate “human-heartedness”.
[21]Analects 7:1: Confucius said: “I have
transmitted what was taught to me without making up anything of may own. I have
been faithful to and loved the Ancients.”
[22]Timothy Tian-min Lin, Op. cit., 162-163. Here
Lin said that Confucius broadened the meaning of Jen into general virtue.
Meanwhile Lin Yue-sheng said that in the new usage of Jen, it denotes an
all-inclusive moral virtues. But here I find a new dimension in Confucius’
usage of Jen, which we will be seeing in the following pages of this essay.
[23]Lin-Yue-sheng, Op. cit., 184. Our
question now is: “What does Confucius mean by man’s highest moral attainment?”
Here Lin Yue-sheng gives two important reasons: first, to refer to the
distinctive quality of man; second, for Confucius the highest moral attainment
is the furthest and perfect development of man’s distinctive quality.
[24]Tu Wei-ming, Humanity and Self-Cultivation:
Essays in Confucian Thought (Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1979),
6-7. In his interpretation of the Analects
12:1, Tu Wei-ming says that what Confucius means by “to conquer yourself” here
is in fact closely linked to the concept of “self-cultivation”. What Confucius
means by “to return to propriety” here is to bring oneself in line with “li”.
Instead of passive submission, it implies active participation. According to Tu
Wei-ming, the best way to approach the concept of Jen is to regard it first of
all as the virtue of the highest order in the value system of Confucianism. In
other words, Jen gives “meaning” to all the other ethical norms that perform
integrative functions in a Confucian society.
[25]Here Confucius describes Jen as having a
very important role in human life. With Jen, man can endure adversity and with
Jen man can enjoy prosperity. The man of Jen rests content with Jen.
[26]Arthur Waley uses the word “like” for “ai”,
but Ernst Schwarz uses the word “love” for “ai”. In this case, I choose “love”
for the word “ai”.
[27]Only the man of Jen is considered of
capable of loving (ai) men, capable of hating them.
[28]Lin Yue-sheng, Op. cit., 185-186.
[29]Stanislaus Lokuang, Op. cit., 93-94.
[30]Actually “te” in the Chinese language also
means “virtue’. But, after one has read Confucius’ sayings about Jen in the
Analects, it is still hard to see how it can be defined more closely than as
“virtue” or “complete virtue”. The character “te” rather denotes the equalities
of a person or thing, whether good or bad. In the Analects the characters “te”
and “Jen” sometimes seem quite interchangeable; this is especially clear in
14:5, when we compare 6:20 with 12:21 (See: H.G. Creel, Op. cit., 310-311).
[31]Julia Ching, Op. cit., 93. In her
comparative studies on Christianity and Confucianism, Ching writes that Jen
offers certain parallels to the Christian virtue of love of charity (“agape”).
Here she describes Jen as the universal virtue.
[32]The Confucian man is one – in his life and
in his heart.
[33]The universality of Jen seems to be based
on the ultimate reference of Confucius: Heaven. Why? Since the raw material of
humanity or “te” was conceived as an endowment from Heaven, everyone had the responsibility of cultivating this given
humanity (Cf. Sung-Hae Kim, Op.cit., 62). This reason is based
on Confucius’ saying in the Analects 7:3; 7:6 and 7:23, which highlight that
“Heaven is the author of virtue.”
[34]Cf. Timothy Tian-min Lin, Ibid.,
164. Lin affirms his opinion by quoting Wang Yang-ming’s understanding of
Confucius’ Jen.
[35]Hans Kueng and Julia Ching, Op.
cit., 93 and 109.
[36]Leo Sherley-Price, Op. cit., 132-133.
[37]Sung-Hae Kim, Op. cit., 52: The
Analects 12:1 is the famous definition of Jen, and here again we see the ideal
of harmony between virtue and refinement, benevolence and the rites. Lin
Yue-sheng, Op. cit., 194. Here Lin gives a critical comment on Analects
12:1. When Yen Hui asked about Jen, Confucius said: “To master oneself and
return to li is Jen.” This statement concerning Jen should be understood as
signifying: “To master the cultivation of a naturally endowed moral quality
within the structure of the proper social and ritual norms is the way to
achieve moral excellence.” Many translators of the Analects misunderstood this
key passage. James Legge translated it as “To subdue one’s self and return to
propriety, is perfect virtue.” (Legge, The Chinese Classics 1, 250). And
Arthur Waley rendered it as “He who can himself submit to ritual is Good.” (Cf.
Arthur Waley, The Analects of Confucius, 162). As a matter of fact ,
Confucius’ answer to Yen Hui stands for the natural and creative tension
between Jen and Li. This means that Jen also has an intimate relation with Li.
Jen cannot exist by itself. Cf. Ernest Schwarz, Op. cit., 216-217: In his
comment on the Analects 12:1, Schwarz describes that Jen does not only have
relation with Li, but Jen also has a universal meaning. Here Confucius asked
Yen Hui to practice “Self-limitation” and internalization of ethical norms, so
that Jen can be realized in relation with other people.
[38]In her comparative study, Julia Ching has a
tendency to translate Jen into “charity” or “love”. She also looks for
arguments to strengthen her opinion. Fausto Tomassini, the translator of
Confucian texts, also translates Jen into “carità’ from the beginning of his translation
(4:2; 4:1; 12:1). Here Botto gives no reason why he translates Jen into “carità” [See Oscar Botto, Classici delle religioni: Le
religioni orientali (Torino: Corso Siracusa, 1977), 129, 140, 193.]
[39]Ernst Schwarz also translates 12:22 into
“Die Menschen lieben.” Cf. S. Soemargono, Op.
cit., 53-56. According to Fung Yu Lan, the essence of a human’s duty is
to love others. The man, who can really love
others is the man who can fulfill his duty in society.
[40]Hans Kueng and Julia Ching, Op.
cit., 68-70.
[41]Ernst Schwarz, Op. cit., 192: Talking
about his part (12:2), we should pay attention to the Analects 4:15 and 12:12,
which has an intimate relation with Jen. The realization of Jen is always in
connection with “chung” (loyalty). According to Dschu Hsi, with loyalty one can
do a lot of good things for other people, for parents, the old, the superiors.
Loyalty is Jen in practice. We can see in the end of Chapter VI of the Analects
that the realization of Jen is always in a social relationship with others, and
we try to help them to reach goodness.
[42]S. Soemargono, Op. cit., 54-56: The realization of
Jen is in paying attention to others. Here Fung Yu-lan also interprets that
this “negative Golden Rule” is “shu”, which can be translated as altruism. This
“negative Golden Rule” can be translated positively as “Do unto others what you
like them to do unto you.” This is a positive realization of Jen, which
Confucius said “chung” (loyalty). It must be noted that “chung” and “shu” are
also the principle of Jen. So, the realization of “chung” and “shu” can be
interpreted as the realization of Jen, although “chung” and “shu” have no
essence as Jen.Tseng Tzu, a disciple of Confucius, has underlined that
Confucius’ way is simply this: “chung” and “shu” (cf. 4:15). According to
Sung-Hae Kim, “chung” and “shu” were considered the main thread binding
together the teaching of Confucius. They are the guide for practice or
methodology of Jen. The close relationship between Jen with “chung” and “shu”
is described in 4:5b (See Sung-Hae Kim, Op. cit., 44).
[43]Timothy Tian-min Lin, Op. cit., 16.5. Cf. Julia
Ching, Op. cit., 95. Ching underlines that the Confucian
interpretation of Jen as universal love, however differs from that of some
other early schools of thought, especially the Mohist, that was founded by
Mo-tzu. Mo-tzu advocated a love of all without distinction. But the followers
of Confucius emphasized the need of discernment, even distinction.
[44]Ibid., Cf. James Bretzke, Op. cit., 16: Here
Bretzke says that Jen expresses itself as a universal love for all humankind,
yet it is a love which is definitely not equal towards all. However, Jen is not
restricted to the family group (father – son), but is present as well in the
relationships of duty and service to one’s nation and to society.
[45]Luigi Magnani, Il Libro delle Sentenze di
Confucio (Parma: Istituto Missioni Estere, 1927), 23-27.
[46]Cf. Analects 6:28 and 17:6.
[47]Ernst Schwarz, Op. cit., 212.
[49]Stanislao Lokuang, Ibid., The interpretation
of this part, according to Ernst Schwarz, should be connected with 11:25.
[50]Cf. Analects 1:1b and 12:24, where
friendship is mentioned only in the reference to the “chuen-tzu” in the
Analects.
[51]Stanislao Lokuang, Ibid., 112.
[53]The Chinese word for Li “ritual” is related
etymologically to the words “worship” and “sacrificial vessel” with a definite
religious overtone. Today this word is always translated as propriety.
[54]Cf. Ernst Schwarz, Op. cit., 186. We can
also find this thought of Confucius in the Analects 3:4 and 17:11. In 17:11
Confucius also taught about the spiritualization and internalization of the
rites.
[55]Timothy Tian-min Lin, Op. cit., 165.
[56]Cf. The Analects 8:8: “Let a man be first
incited by the Songs, then given a firm footing by the study of ritual, and
finally perfected by music.” What Confucius meant by music here is ritual music
with a sacral character.
[57]Cf. Sung-Hae Kim, Op. cit., 61-62.
[58]Cf. The explanation of 1.1.1. and 1.1.2.,
which also says that etymologically Jen consists of a social dimension.
[59]Sung-Hae Kim, Op.cit., 196.
[60]Schwarz interprets that children’s
obedience to their parents arises from their dependent-attitude on their
parents and the weak to the strong. This obedience also develops in the
education field. And, this “familiar relation” becomes a socio-political
relationship.
[61]Lasiyo, “Etika Menurut Ajaran Confucius”
(=Ethics according to the Confucius’ Teaching) in Basis 7 (1988): 252-253.
[62]Sung-Hae Kim, Op. cit., 33: The term “chuen-tzu”
occurs 107 times in the Analects and consistently signifies the ideal that
Confucius placed before his disciples. The number of occurrences itself
indicates that “chuen-tzu” was the central image that Confucius expounded for
his disciples. Kim translated “chuen-tzu” as “noble man”. Arthur Waley has
translated “chuen-tzu” into “gentleman”. Meanwhile, Jamed Legge translates
“chuen-tzu” as “superior man”. And James Bretzke tanslates “chuen-tzu” as the
“Superior Person”. However, it must be noted that the original meaning of
“chuen-tzu” is “a ruler’s son”. The reason why J. Bretzke does not use terms
such as “the noble man:”. “the Gentleman” and “the Great Person” is because of
their potentially misleading aristocratic connotations. But he also realizes
that the term (“the Superior Person”) could also in turn be misconstrued it it
were understood in the sense of arrogance, or greater innate worth, or some similar misconstruction (Cf.
J. Bretzke, Op. cit., 6).
[63] H.G. Creel, Confucius
and the Chinese Way (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1960), 78:
When Confucius speaks of the “chuen-tzu”, he is referring to a man who has
those qualities that an aristocrat ought ideally to possess, a man of true
nobility. “Chuen-tzu” is not only indicate “a ruler’s son”.
[64]I.G.Wibowo, “Pandangan Confucius tentang Manusia”
(=Confucius’ Concept of Man) in Driyarkara 2 (1978), 54. According
to H.G. Creel, Confucius changed the content of “chuen-tzu”, because everybody
can become “chuen-tzu”, if his attitude is good, kind, just and social.
[65]According to E. Schwarz, what Confucius
meant by virtue here was not the richness, but the existential values of life.
[66]Sung-Hae Kim, Op. cit., 40-43.
[67]E. Schwarz, Op. cit., 174-175: The “chuen-tzu” has broadened the familial
relationship into every situation which is based on the root, that is the equal
hiumanity.
[68]I.G. Wibowo, Op. cit., 54-56.
[69]Sung-Hae Kim, Op. cit., 61.
[70]Antonio S. Cua, “Reflections on the
Structure of Confucian Ethics” in Philosophy East and West 21 (1971),
125-140.
[71]Tu Wei-ming, Ibid., 6. From his
interpretation of the Analects 12:1, Tu Wei-ming says that Jen is probably
still the most difficult to grasp. Although it has been freely translated as
benevolence, charity, humanity, love, human-heartedness, and goodness, none is really
satisfactory. Here he has the same idea as Lin Yue-sheng.
